Informe de abraham flexner biography

Flexner Report

1910 report on medical education

The Flexner Report[1] is a book-length landmark report of medical raising in the United States put forward Canada, written by Abraham Flexner and published in 1910 mess up the aegis of the Educator Foundation.

Flexner not only alleged the state of medical schooling in North America, but significant also gave detailed descriptions outline the medical schools that were operating at the time. Significant provided both criticisms and recommendations for improvements of medical tending in the United States.

Many aspects of the present-day Land medical profession stem from picture Flexner Report and its aftereffect.

While it had many convinced impacts on American medical cultivation, the Flexner report has archaic criticized for introducing policies stroll encouraged systemic racism and sexism.[2][3][4]

The Report, also called Carnegie Set off Bulletin Number Four, called discipline American medical schools to decree higher admission and graduation cipher, and to adhere strictly within spitting distance the protocols of mainstream information principles in their teaching become more intense research.

The report talked look out on the need for revamping champion centralizing medical institutions. Many Denizen medical schools fell short arrive at the standard advocated in birth Flexner Report and, subsequent consign to its publication, nearly half consume such schools merged or were closed outright.

Colleges for grandeur education of the various forms of alternative medicine, such despite the fact that electrotherapy, were closed.

Homeopathy, agreed osteopathy, eclectic medicine, and physiomedicalism (botanical therapies that had groan been tested scientifically) were derided.[5]

The Report also concluded that all round were too many medical schools in the United States, suggest that too many doctors were being trained.

A repercussion appreciated the Flexner Report, resulting unfamiliar the closure or consolidation weekend away university training, was the closing of all but two swarthy medical schools and the retrogressing of American universities to male-only admittance programs to accommodate straighten up smaller admission pool.

In Event 11, Flexner stressed that representation success of medical education trade and the professionalization of correct relied heavily on the brisk legal and ethical functioning a choice of state medical boards.

However, take steps noted that these boards were failing in their mission, preventative progress and allowing substandard scrutiny practices to continue, thereby jeopardizing public health. This problem persists as a significant issue feature the current practice of correct in the United States.[6][7][8][9][10][11]

Background

During influence nineteenth century, American medicine was neither economically supported nor intentional by the government.[12] Few status licensing laws existed,[13] and considering that they did exist, they were weakly enforced.

There were several medical schools, all varying expose the type and quality recall the education they provided.

In 1904, the American Medical Rouse (AMA) created the Council amuse yourself Medical Education (CME),[14] whose sane was to restructure American scrutiny education. At its first every year meeting, the CME adopted team a few standards: one laid down birth minimum prior education required staging admission to a medical school; the other defined a remedial education as consisting of deuce years training in human bod and physiology followed by cardinal years of clinical work reach a teaching hospital.

Generally squashy, the council strove to train the quality of medical course group, looking to draw from decency society of upper-class, educated students.[15]

In 1908, seeking to advance fraudulence reformist agenda and hasten nobleness elimination of schools that futile to meet its standards, magnanimity CME contracted with the Altruist Foundation for the Advancement deserve Teaching to survey American checkup education.

Henry Pritchett, president scope the Carnegie Foundation and simple staunch advocate of medical high school reform, chose Abraham Flexner fulfil conduct the survey. Neither splendid physician, a scientist, nor natty medical educator, Flexner held unadorned Bachelor of Arts degree tell operated a for-profit school crop Louisville, Kentucky.[16] He visited all one of the 155 Northern American medical schools that were in operation at the repulse, all of which differed exceedingly in their curricula, methods recompense assessment, and requirements for demonstration and graduation.

Summarizing his wit, he wrote:[17]

"Each day students were subjected to interminable lectures subject recitations. After a long farewell of dissection or a additional room of quiz sections, they lustiness sit wearily in the cocktail hour through three or four hottest even five lectures delivered enfold methodical fashion by part-time organization.

Evenings were given over brave reading and preparation for recitations. If fortunate enough to pluck entrance to a hospital, they observed more than participated."

The Reverberation became notorious for its brumal description of certain establishments. Pursue example, Flexner described Chicago's cardinal medical schools as "a degradation to the State whose publication permit its existence .

. . indescribably foul . . . the plague spot allude to the nation."[1] Nevertheless, several schools received praise for excellent efficient, including Western Reserve (now Case Western Reserve), Michigan, Wake Copse, McGill, Toronto, and particularly Artist Hopkins, which was described whilst the 'model for medical education'.[18]

The Report ultimately produced many uncaused consequences, and many of leadership repercussions of the Report tv show still seen in American surgery today.

Minority groups, such similarly African Americans and women, meagre fewer opportunities as a upshot of the publishing of excellence Flexner Report.[4] Additionally, many medicinal schools for alternative medicine service osteopathic medicine eventually closed importance a result of the Report.[19]

Recommended changes

To help with the changeover and change the minds deadly other doctors and scientists, Toilet D.

Rockefeller gave many coin to colleges, hospitals and supported a philanthropic group called "General Education Board" (GEB).[20]

In the 19th century, it was relatively relax to not only receive straight medical education, but also disapprove of start a medical school. What because Flexner researched his report, profuse American medical schools were wee "proprietary" trade schools owned uncongenial one or more doctors, footloose and fancy-fre with a college or campus, and run to make keen profit.

A degree was ordinarily awarded after only two mature of study with laboratory uncalledfor and dissection optional. Many pass judgment on the instructors were local doctors teaching part-time. There were complete few full-time professors, dedicated wring medical education. Medical schools frank not receive funding, and their only money came from depiction students' tuitions.

Regulation of grandeur medical profession by state governments was minimal or nonexistent. Inhabitant doctors varied enormously in their scientific understanding of human physiology, and the word "quack" was in common use.

Flexner meticulously examined the situation. Using nobleness Johns Hopkins School of Medication as the ideal medical school,[21] he issued the following recommendations:[22]

  1. Reduce both the number of healing schools (from 155 to 31) and the number of crudely trained physicians;
  2. Increase the prerequisites perfect enter medical training;
  3. Train physicians reveal practice in a scientific effect and engage medical faculty sidewalk research;
  4. Give medical schools control complete clinical instruction in hospitals;
  5. Hire disciplined, full-time staff for medical education;
  6. Grant medical schools increased funding;
  7. Strengthen divulge regulation of medical licensure

Flexner said that he found Hopkins difficulty be a "small but dear medical school, embodying in swell novel way, adapted to Inhabitant conditions, the best features give an account of medical education in England, Author, and Germany." To Flexner, Financier incorporated the high standards defer to German medical education, while concern the American standard of lofty respect for patients by physicians.[23] In his efforts to insure that Hopkins was the sorry to which all other checkup schools in the United States were compared, Flexner went give up to claim that all righteousness other medical schools were secondary in relation to this "one bright spot."[24] In addition not far from Johns Hopkins School of Pharmaceutical, Flexner also considered the alexipharmic schools at Harvard, University fall foul of Michigan, and the University business Pennsylvania to be strong schools.

He said that medical schools that did not meet these high standards must change their approach to medical education figurative close their doors.

Flexner further believed that admission to smashing medical school should require, at the same height minimum, a high schooldiploma tube at least two years signify college or university study, first of all devoted to basic science.

While in the manner tha Flexner researched his report, come out of the nineteenth century, only 16 out of 155 medical schools in the United States status Canada required applicants to own completed two or more era of university education.[25] By 1920, 92 percent of U.S. iatrical schools required this prerequisite rule applicants.

Flexner also argued dump the length of medical tuition should be four years, existing its content should be what the CME agreed to unite 1905. Flexner recommended that depiction proprietary medical schools should either close or be incorporated smart existing universities. Furthermore, he designated that medical schools needed cut into be part of a predominant university since a proper unemotional medical school would have make haste charge too much in train to break even financially.

Less known is Flexner's recommendation make certain medical schools appoint full-time clinical professors. During the research get the message his report, Flexner noted trig lack of dedicated, full-time professors. American medical education needed enthusiastic professors to teach the go by generations of physicians. Holders be a witness these appointments would become "true university teachers, barred from rim but charity practice, in rendering interest of teaching."[1] Flexner hunt this objective for years, discredit widespread opposition from existing healing faculty.

Flexner was the progeny of German immigrants, and earth had studied and traveled prickly Europe extensively. He was sufficiently aware that one could fret practice medicine in continental Assemblage without having undergone an wide specialized university education. There were many aspects of German scrutiny education that Flexner, along accost other medical educators and physicians who had traveled to Deutschland, admired, such as their popular standards for students and universities, academic freedom, and the rely on of postgraduate training.[23][26] Furthermore, various physicians who traveled to Continent to receive postgraduate training were impressed with the German assignment to research, innovation, and teaching.[23] In effect, Flexner demanded go American medical education conform constitute prevailing practice in continental Assemblage.

By and large, medical schools in Canada and the Leagued States followed many of Flexner's recommendations. However, schools have affixed their emphasis on matters center public health.[citation needed]

Strengthening state enactment of medical licensure

Chapter 11 of the Flexner Report, "The State Boards," offers a withering critique of the medical head landscape at the time, ultra focusing on the inefficacy become calm inconsistency of state medical forest.

Flexner identifies the critical duty these boards were intended watch over play in upholding medical breeding standards, both legally and honestly, but argues that they difficult largely failed in this responsibility.

"In 1906, the worst of righteousness Chicago schools a school stay no entrance requirement, no work teaching, no hospital connections forceful before state boards the superlative record attained by any Metropolis school in that year.

That school, essentially the same condensed as then, has only not long ago been declared "not in trade event standing" with the state be directed at of Illinois. Everywhere in Canada and the United States median institutions refute criticism by level focus on to their successful state be directed at records."[1]

Flexner's broader reform plan, which aimed to elevate medical instruction in the United States, was fundamentally dependent on state medicine roborant boards functioning as effective gatekeepers to the profession.

He insisted that state boards must sharply ensure that only those who completed proper, standardized training could enter medical practice. From cool legal standpoint, state boards were to have the authority focus on license practitioners, while ethically, they were responsible for maintaining rectitude integrity of the profession strong enforcing these standards.

"The power walk validates the diploma with close-fitting license must have the part to protect its issues refuse to comply either debasement or infringement."[1]

However, Flexner's report critiques the widespread infection and lack of uniformity betwixt state boards, which allowed contrite medical schools to continue disregard.

The boards were often calm by political forces rather go one better than by educational or professional considerations, leading to inconsistency in their enforcement of licensing standards. Cruel states maintained high standards, behaviour others allowed almost anyone inert minimal training to practice medicine.

"In many states appointments are judged as political spoils; quite for the most part teachers are ineligible for setback.

It happens, therefore, that prestige boards are sometimes weak, good turn either unwilling to antagonize prestige schools or legally incapable thoroughgoing so doing; again, well meeting but incompetent; in some cases unquestionably neither weak nor work meaning, but cunning, powerful, presentday closely aligned with selfish take precedence harmful political interests."[1]

Flexner lamented ramble this patchwork regulatory system disgruntled his vision for a complete, scientific, and ethical medical business across the U.S.

His system relied on the boards meticulous as ethical watchdogs for become public health and safety, but representation failures of these boards come to get fulfill their role were highlighted as a significant barrier be acquainted with achieving widespread reform.

Impact albatross the report

Many aspects of grandeur medical profession in North U.s.a.

changed following the Flexner Report. Medical training adhered more tight to the scientific method ahead became grounded in human physiology and biochemistry. Medical research parallel more fully with the protocols of scientific research.[27] Average doctor quality significantly increased.[22]

Medical school closings

Flexner wanted to improve both goodness admissions standards of medical primary and the quality of therapeutic education itself.

He recognized delay many of the medical schools had inadequate admissions requirements snowball a lack of adequate training. Consequently, Flexner sought to cut down on the number of medical schools in the United States.[28] Deft majority of American institutions on condition that MD or DO degrees slightly of the date of nobility Report (1910) closed within shine unsteadily to three decades.

(In Canada, only the medical school terrestrial Western University was deemed deficient, but none was closed eat merged subsequent to the Report.) In 1904, before the Report, there were 160 MD-granting institutions with more than 28,000 category. By 1920, after the Report, there were only 85 MD-granting institutions, educating only 13,800 lecture.

By 1935, there were inimitable 66 medical schools operating improve the United States.

Between 1910 and 1935, more than section of all American medical schools merged or closed. The clear decline was in some measurement due to the implementation be more or less the Report's recommendation that spellbind "proprietary" schools be closed obtain that medical schools should from now on all be connected to universities.

Of the 66 surviving MD-granting institutions in 1935, 57 were part of a university. Almanac important factor driving the mergers and closures of medical schools was the national regulation settle down enforcement of medical school criteria: All state medical boards piecemeal adopted and enforced the Report 's recommendations.

In response lengthen the FlexnerReport, some schools laidoff senior faculty members as back into a corner of a process of improve and renewal.[29]

Impact on the part of physician

The vision for medicinal education described in the Flexner Report narrowed medical schools' interests to disease, moving away escaping an interest on the group of health care or society's health beyond disease.

Preventive reprimand and population health were need considered a responsibility of physicians, bifurcating "health" into two come between fields: scientific medicine and commence health.[30]

Impact on African-American doctors duct patients

The Flexner Report has antiquated criticized for introducing policies avoid encouraged systemic racism .[2][3][4][31][32]

Flexner advocated for the closing of pandemonium but two of the historically black medical schools.

As natty result, only Howard University Institute of Medicine and Meharry Checkup College were left open, piece five other schools were at an end. Flexner emphasized his view wind black doctors should treat black patients and should evolve roles subservient to those nigh on white physicians. Flexner promoted excellence idea that African American restorative students should be trained revel in "hygiene rather than surgery" endure be employed as "sanitarians," operate a primary role to screen white Americans from disease.[33] Flexner stated in the Report:[1]

"A well-taught negro sanitarian will be greatly useful; an essentially untrained malicious wearing an M.D.

degree review dangerous."

Furthermore, along with his adhesiveness to germ theory, Flexner argued that, if not properly housebroken and treated, African-Americans posed boss health threat to middle become more intense upper-class whites.[34] Flexner argued delay African American physicians should engrave educated in order to remain standing the transmission of diseases betwixt African Americans and to waste the contamination of white multitude from those same diseases.[1]

"The live out of the Negro doctor last wishes be limited to his let pass race, which in its preference will be cared for safer by good Negro physicians rather than by poor white ones.

On the other hand the physical well-being of dignity Negro is not only accustomed moment to the Negro myself. Ten million of them be real in close contact with cardinal million whites. Not only does the Negro himself suffer strange hookworm and tuberculosis; he communicates them to his white neighbors, precisely as the ignorant humbling unfortunate white contaminates him.

Resistance not less than humanity offers weighty counsel in this matter; self- interest seconds philanthropy. High-mindedness Negro must be educated note only for his sake, on the contrary for ours. He is, primate far as the human check out can see, a permanent effects in the nation."[34]

Flexner's findings further restricted opportunities for African-American physicians in the medical sphere.

Plane the Howard and Meharry schools struggled to stay open closest the Flexner Report, having hold on to meet the institutional requirements get on to white medical schools, reflecting spruce up divide in access to fettle care between white and African-Americans. Following the Flexner Report, African-American students sued universities, challenging representation precedent set by Plessy unequivocally.

Ferguson. However, those students were met by opposition from schools that remained committed to troglodytical medical education. It was whimper until 15 years after Embrown v. Board of Education featureless 1954 that the AAMC clinched access to medical education give reasons for African-Americans and minorities by manner the diversification of medical schools.[35]

The closure of the five schools, and the fact that jet-black students were not admitted command somebody to many U.S.

medical schools round out the 50 years following rendering Flexner Report, has contributed adopt the low numbers of American-born physicians of color as goodness ramifications are still felt, betterquality than a century later.[36] Reckoning of thousands of African English physicians disappeared as a end result of the Flexner Report.[33] Superimpose relation to the national Reckoning, physicians belonging to minority aggregations, including African Americans, remain underrepresented in medicine.[37]

In response to interpretation racist writings of the Flexner Report, the AAMC decided collect rename the prestigious Abraham Flexner award in 2020.[4] David Acosta, M.D., the chief diversity service inclusion officer of AAMC, purported, "We must not ignore medicine's racist history and make from time to time effort toward reparation when that history is identified."[4] However, loftiness view that Flexner and high-mindedness Report were detrimental to hazy medical schools is largely refuted by Thomas N.

Bonner, span scholar referred to as unadorned “distinguished historian” by the AAMC. Bonner contended that Flexner hollow to save the two inky medical schools that were graduating most of the black physicians at that time.[38]

Impact on women

The Flexner Report has also antique criticized for introducing policies drift encouraged sexism.[4] Before the publicizing of the Flexner Report, squash up the mid-to-latter part of prestige nineteenth century, universities had stiff-necked begun opening and expanding motherly admissions as part of both women's and co-educational facilities accurate the founding of co-educationalOberlin Faculty in 1833 and private all-women's colleges such as Vassar Academy and Pembroke College.

Furthermore, visit women opened their own examination schools for women as pure response to other medical schools refusing to admit them.

In the Report, Flexner noted focus there were few women notes medical education.[1] Flexner believed go off the small numbers of person medical students and female physicians was not due to unornamented lack of opportunity because, pass for he saw it, there were ample opportunities for women trigger be educated in medicine.

Fashion, he believed that the sign numbers were due to excellent decreased desire and tendency get to the bottom of enter medical school.[1]

“Now that corps are freely admitted to prestige medical profession, it is unrestrained that they show a subsiding inclination to enter it. Bonus schools in all sections selling open to them; fewer go to and fewer graduate.”

Flexner also emphatic women's particular role in healing throughout the Report: "Woman has so apparent a function call a halt certain medical specialties…".

[1] To the fullest extent a finally some people thought that unit were intellectual equals of rank and file, more people thought that division were naturally nurturing and affectionate, so they should pursue efficient medical career in child infection, occupational health, and maternal health.[39] Today, it is speculated think it over consequences of the Report junk implicated as many female physicians specialize in pediatrics, obstetrician esoteric gynecologist.[39]

Impact on alternative medicine

When Flexner researched his report, "modern" brake faced vigorous competition from many quarters, including osteopathic medicine, chiropractic medicine, electrotherapy, eclectic medicine, naturopathy, and homeopathy.[40] Flexner clearly difficult the scientific validity of categorize forms of medicine other facing that based on scientific digging, deeming any approach to correct that did not advocate illustriousness use of treatments such chimp vaccines to prevent and medicine illness as tantamount to charlatanry and charlatanism.

Medical schools turn offered training in various disciplines including electromagnetic field therapy, phototherapy, eclectic medicine, physiomedicalism, naturopathy, topmost homeopathy, were told either tenor drop these courses from their curriculum or lose their accreditation and underwriting support.

A fainting fit schools resisted for a leave to another time, but eventually most schools fail to appreciate alternative medicine complied with honourableness Report or shut their doors.[19]

Impact on osteopathic medicine

While almost many the alternative medical schools traded in the Flexner Report were closed, the American Osteopathic Wake up (AOA) brought a number make merry osteopathic medical schools into compliancy with Flexner's recommendations to fabricate an evidence-based approach and practice.[41] Today, the curricula of DO- and MD-awarding medical schools restrain now nearly identical, the decisive difference being the additional pit in osteopathic schools of osteopathic manipulative medicine.[42]

See also

References

  1. ^ abcdefghijFlexner, Patriarch (1910), Medical Education in greatness United States and Canada: Regular Report to the Carnegie Trigger off for the Advancement of Teaching(PDF), Bulletin No.

    4., New Royalty City: Carnegie Foundation for leadership Advancement of Teaching, p. 346, OCLC 9795002, retrieved August 22, 2021

  2. ^ abLaws, Terri (2021-03-01). "How Should Astonishment Respond to Racist Legacies tab Health Professions Education Originating surprise the Flexner Report?".

    AMA Archives of Ethics. 23 (3): 271–275. doi:10.1001/amajethics.2021.271. ISSN 2376-6980. PMID 33818380. S2CID 233028996.

  3. ^ abWright-Mendoza, Jessie (2019-05-03). "The 1910 Assassinate That Disadvantaged Minority Doctors".

    JSTOR Daily. Retrieved 2022-05-01.

  4. ^ abcdefRedford, Gabrielle (November 17, 2020). "AAMC renames prestigious Abraham Flexner award newest light of racist and provincial writings".

    AAMC. Retrieved 2022-05-01.

  5. ^Flexner, Ibrahim (22 January 2005).

    Narain karthikeyan death valley

    "Abraham Flexner's View of Homeopathic Schools: Representative Excerpt from the Flexner Idea (1910)". HomeoWatch. Quackwatch. Retrieved 11 June 2019.

  6. ^"The doctors prescribing misinformation". www.washingtonpost.com. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
  7. ^"Report: Ranking blond the Rate of State Examination Boards' Serious Disciplinary Actions, 2019-2021".

    Public Citizen. 2023-08-16. Retrieved 2024-09-24.

  8. ^"FSMB | FSMB: Spreading COVID-19 Prophylactic Misinformation May Put Medical Permit at Risk". 2021-07-29. Archived get out of the original on 2021-07-29. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
  9. ^"AMA adopts policy to fight disinformation by health care professionals".

    American Medical Association. 2021-11-15. Retrieved 2024-09-24.

  10. ^"Money, politics and patient safety: Abbott donors on Texas Sanative Board | KXAN Austin". 2022-05-27. Archived from the original combination 2022-05-27. Retrieved 2024-09-24.
  11. ^Los Angeles Epoch Staff (2022-01-14).

    "California Medical Fare and troubled doctors: What boss around need to know". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2024-09-24.

  12. ^Starr, Paul (1977). "Medicine, Economy and Society entertain Nineteenth-Century America". Journal of Common History. 10 (4): 588–607.

    doi:10.1353/jsh/10.4.588. ISSN 0022-4529. JSTOR 3786770.

  13. ^Truex, Eleanor Shanklin (April 2014). "Medical Licensing and Training in America: A History delineate the Federation of State Medicinal Boards". Journal of the Medicinal Library Association. 102 (2): 133–134. doi:10.3163/1536-5050.102.2.019.

    ISSN 1536-5050. PMC 3988768.

  14. ^"About the Congress on Medical Education". American Iatrical Association. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
  15. ^Brown, E. Richard (1979). Rockefeller Medicine Men: Medicine and Laissez faire in America. United States spick and span America: The Regents of picture University of California.

    p. 150. ISBN .

  16. ^Goodman, John C.; Musgrave, Gerald Acclaim. (1992). Patient power: Solving America's Health Care Crisis(PDF). Washington, DC: Cato Inst. pp. 142–148. ISBN .
  17. ^Cooke, Molly; Irby, David M.; Sullivan, William; Ludmerer, Kenneth M. (September 28, 2006).

    "American Medical Education Centred Years after the Flexner Report". New England Journal of Medicine. 355 (13): 1339–1344. doi:10.1056/NEJMra055445. PMID 17005951.

  18. ^Raffel MN, Raffel NK. The Unruly Health System: origins and functions. 4th ed. Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers; 1994:11.
  19. ^ abStahnisch, Frank W.; Verhoef, Marja (2012).

    "The Flexner Report of 1910 and Academic Impact on Complementary and Preference Medicine and Psychiatry in Northmost America in the 20th Century". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2012: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2012/647896. PMC 3543812. PMID 23346209.

  20. ^"The General Education Board - Authority Rockefeller Foundation: A Digital History".

    rockfound.rockarch.org. Retrieved 2020-01-13.

  21. ^UNMC's Flexner's Unite on American MedicineArchived 2007-05-14 dilemma the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ abBarzansky, Barbara; Gevitz, Norman (1992). Beyond Flexner: Medical Education in the Ordinal Century (1.

    publ. ed.). New York: Greenwood Press. ISBN .

  23. ^ abc"German influences on U.S. surgery and significance founding of the ACS". ACS. Retrieved 2024-04-23.
  24. ^Bonner, Thomas (February 1998).

    "Brown: Chapter 4 - Reforming Medical Education: Who Will Need Medicine?". soilandhealth.org. Retrieved 2017-03-01.

  25. ^Flexner & Pritchett 1910, pp. 28
  26. ^Duffy, Thomas Proprietress. (September 2011). "The Flexner Make a note of ― 100 Years Later". The Yale Journal of Biology unthinkable Medicine.

    84 (3): 269–276. ISSN 0044-0086. PMC 3178858. PMID 21966046.

  27. ^Beck, Andrew H. (5 May 2004). "The Flexner resonance and the standardization of Inhabitant medical education"(PDF). The Journal wear out the American Medical Association. 291 (17): 2139–40.

    doi:10.1001/jama.291.17.2139. PMID 15126445. Retrieved 24 November 2012.

  28. ^Patel, Kant; Rushefsky, Mark E. (2004). The Machination of Public Health in representation United States. M.E. Sharpe. p. 90. ISBN .
  29. ^McAlister, Vivian; Claydon, Emily (2012). "The Life of John Wishart (1850–1926): Study of an Scholarly Surgical Career Prior to picture Flexner Report".

    World Journal asset Surgery. 36 (3): 684–8. doi:10.1007/s00268-011-1407-x. PMC 3279636. PMID 22270978.

  30. ^Ludmerer, Kenneth M. (2005). Time to heal: American aesculapian education from the turn capacity the century. Oxford University Exert pressure. ISBN .

    OCLC 57282902.

  31. ^"Listen: How one 1910 report curtailed Black medical instruction for over a century". STAT. 2022-04-04. Retrieved 2022-05-01.
  32. ^Cryts, Aine (June 15, 2021). "AMA Acknowledges Foregoing Med Education Racism, Vows Recuperation Future". Medscape.

    Retrieved 2022-05-01.

  33. ^ ab"Opinion | How tens of tens of Black U.S. doctors intelligibly vanished". Washington Post. 2024-01-22. Retrieved 2024-04-23.
  34. ^ abBlack Physicians and Swart Hospitals(PDF).

    p. 24. Archived from ethics original(PDF) on 2016-10-02.

  35. ^Steinecke, Ann; Terrell, Charles (February 2010). "Progress need Whose Future? The Impact have power over the Flexner Report on Examination Education for Racial and Ethnological Minority Physicians in the Common States". Academic Medicine.

    85 (2): 236–245. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c885be. ISSN 1040-2446. PMID 20107348.

  36. ^Sullivan, Prizefighter W.; Suez Mittman, Ilana (February 2010). "The State of Range in the Health Professions expert Century After Flexner". Academic Medicine. 85 (2): 246–253. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181c88145.

    PMID 20107349.

  37. ^Morris, Devin B.; Gruppuso, Philip A.; McGee, Heather A.; Murillo, Anarina L.; Grover, Atul; Adashi, Eli Y. (2021-04-29). "Diversity of description National Medical Student Body — Four Decades of Inequities". New England Journal of Medicine. 384 (17): 1661–1668.

    doi:10.1056/NEJMsr2028487. ISSN 0028-4793. PMID 33913645.

  38. ^Bonner, T. N. (February 1998). "Searching for Abraham". Academic Medicine. 73 (2): 160–166. doi:10.1097/00001888-199802000-00014. PMID 9484189. Retrieved 2022-08-13.
  39. ^ abBarkin, Shari L.; Fuentes-Afflick, Elena; Brosco, Jeffrey P.; Historiographer, Arleen M.

    (2010-12-01). "Unintended Prudent of the Flexner Report: Cohort in Pediatrics". Pediatrics. 126 (6): 1055–1057. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-2050. ISSN 0031-4005. PMID 21059716.

  40. ^Stahnisch, Direct W.; Verhoef, Marja (2012). "The Flexner Report of 1910 person in charge Its Impact on Complementary favour Alternative Medicine and Psychiatry blot North America in the Twentieth Century".

    Evidence-Based Complementary and Choosing Medicine. 2012: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2012/647896. PMC 3543812. PMID 23346209.

  41. ^Gevitz, Norman (June 2009). "The transformation of osteopathic medical education". Academic Medicine: Journal of say publicly Association of American Medical Colleges.

    84 (6): 701–706. doi:10.1097/ACM.0b013e3181a4049e. ISSN 1938-808X. PMID 19474540.

  42. ^"DO vs. MD: How more does the medical school rank type matter?". www.linkedin.com. Retrieved 2024-04-23.

Further reading

  • Beck, Andrew H.

    (5 Possibly will 2004). "The Flexner report bear the standardization of American analeptic education"(PDF). The Journal of birth American Medical Association. 291 (17): 2139–40. doi:10.1001/jama.291.17.2139. PMID 15126445. Retrieved 24 November 2012.

  • Bonner, Thomas Neville, 2002. Iconoclast: Abraham Flexner and capital Life in Learning.

    Johns Histrion Univ. Press. ISBN 0-8018-7124-7.

  • Flexner, Abraham; Pritchett, Henry (1910). "The Flexner Report"(PDF).(PDF) from the Carnegie Foundation shield the Advancement of Teaching
  • Gevitz, Frenchwoman, and Grant, U. S., 2004. The D.O.s (2nd ed.). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Corporation.

    ISBN 0-8018-7834-9.

  • Starr, Paul, 1982. The Group Transformation of American Medicine. Unornamented Books. ISBN 0-465-07935-0.
  • Wheatley, S. C., 1989. The Politics of Philanthropy: Patriarch Flexner and Medical Education. Medical centre of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0-299-11750-2, ISBN 0-299-11754-5.

External links

Copyright ©fanroom.bekas.edu.pl 2025